Long Grass And Ticks -Live (or die) with it!"

Zoe Webber and myself running the Fox Deaths Project have had to deal with the end result of babesia -dead foxes. How other wildlife is affected in the UK and particularly Bristol we have no idea.

I was not going to say anything about markers on our Fox Deaths map but Zoe picked up on it immediately. All of the foxes with babesia cut straight through the City of Bristol. We need more dead foxes to test but it is striking.

There is a belief that EMF fields can attract and provide a good habitat area for ticks. If you live in Bristol then you know almost every tall building has a radio tower on it. Also, one fox died (we lost the other one) near to the Purdown radio tower (70 metres high and built in 1970).

Based on other information about ticks I suggested to the main three Bristol naturalist groupsthat if anyone had more knowledge and experience and wanted to try a tick survey then the Purdown area would be perfect.

What I got in response was a 'joke' about "ticking" a box every time a tick was found and the "very strong" opinion that every time ticks were mentioned the reaction was to cut down high grass. Polite argument did not sway the responder.

Let me make it clear that I think we need to protect and preserve our environment (I've even been called an "environmental" and "conservation" activist now. I grew up in the UK and loved long grass as well as flower meadows. The same in Germany so I am not an "anti-long grass terrorist" of any kind.

As I pointed out; until someone conducts a survey and finds ticks you cannot put up a "tick awareness" notice as the local authorities want evidence.  So the ticks have to be looked for. Naturalists are supposed to study nature and record and report (I may be one of the last old dinosaurs with that belief it seems -its all pretty birda and butterflies now). 

There is no joke if bitten and you get Lyme disease -and walking a youngster through a meadow and finding him/her has been bitten and contracted Lymes is no joke. The finding (preliminary) that the babesia in foxes cuts through the middle of Bristol and so residential areas is important. "Live with it and keep the grass long" is not the response I expect from naturalists. Perhaps they can read the post mortem reports on the foxes?

Most people habve never heard of Lyme disease let alone babesia so why would they exercise caution -nothing around to warn them at entrances etc.

I throw my hands into the air and swear aloud rather than writing the responses I want to.

Babesia tick from Medical News Today https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/babesia

 Center for Disease Control FAQ on babesia https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/babesiosis/gen_info/faqs.html

What is babesiosis?

Babesiosis is a disease caused by microscopic parasites that infect red blood cells. Many different species (types) of Babesia parasites have been found in animals, only a few of which have been found in people. Babesia microti—which usually infects white-footed mice and other small mammals—is the main species that has been found in people in the United States. Occasional cases caused by other Babesia species have been detected.

How do people get infected with Babesia?

The main way is through the bite of an infected tick.

• Babesia microti is spread by Ixodes scapularis ticks, which are commonly called blacklegged ticks or deer ticks. (Although white-tailed deer are the most important food source for the adult stage of the tick, deer are not infected with B. microti.)
• The parasite typically is spread by the young nymph stage of the tick. Nymphs are mostly found during warm months (spring and summer) in areas with woods, brush, or grass.
• Infected people might not recall a tick bite because I. scapularis nymphs are very small (about the size of a poppy seed).

Other possible ways of becoming infected with Babesia include:
• Receipt of a contaminated blood transfusion (no tests have been licensed yet for donor screening); or
• Transmission from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy or delivery.

Where do most of the cases of babesiosis occur in the United States?

Most cases occur in the Northeast and upper Midwest, particularly in parts of New England, New York state, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. In the Northeast, babesiosis occurs in both inland and coastal areas, including off-shore islands, such as Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard (Massachusetts); Block Island (Rhode Island); and Shelter Island, Fire Island, and eastern Long Island (New York state).

What are the symptoms and signs of Babesia infection?

Many people who are infected with Babesia microti feel fine and do not have any symptoms. Some people develop flu-like symptoms, such as fever, chills, sweats, headache, body aches, loss of appetite, nausea, or fatigue. Because Babesia parasites infect red blood cells, babesiosis can cause hemolytic anemia (from the destruction of red blood cells).

Babesiosis can be a severe, life-threatening disease, particularly in people who.
• Do not have a spleen;
• Have a weak immune system for other reasons (such as cancer, lymphoma, or AIDS);
• Have other serious health conditions (such as liver or kidney disease); or
• Are elderly.

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How soon after the exposure do symptoms develop?

Symptoms, if any, can start within a week or so. They usually develop within a few weeks or months, sometimes longer.

What should I do if I think I might have babesiosis?

See your health care provider.

How is babesiosis diagnosed in people who have symptoms of the infection?

In symptomatic people, babesiosis usually is diagnosed by examining blood under a microscope and seeing Babesia parasites inside red blood cells. To be sure the diagnosis is correct, your health care provider might have specimens of your blood tested by a specialized reference laboratory (such as at CDC or a health department). In addition, your health care provider might decide to have your blood tested for other possible causes of your symptoms, including other tickborne infections, such as Lyme disease and anaplasmosis.

I have been diagnosed with babesiosis. Do I need to tell CDC?

No. It is not necessary for you to report your case to your health department or CDC.

Reportable conditions are diseases that physicians and/or laboratories must report to their state health department. Babesiosis is reportable in some states but not in others. If babesiosis is reportable in your state, the appropriate authority (a physician, hospital, or laboratory) will submit the necessary information to the health department.

Can babesiosis be treated?

Yes. Effective treatments are available. People who do not have symptoms or signs of babesiosis usually do not need to be treated. The first step is to make sure the diagnosis is correct.

Can babesiosis be prevented?

Yes. People can take steps to prevent babesiosis and other tickborne infections. The use of prevention measures is particularly important for people at increased risk for severe babesiosis (for example, people who do not have a spleen). If possible, areas infested with ticks should be avoided, especially during warm months. If such areas cannot be avoided, use protective measures during outdoor activities. See the Prevention and Control page for tips, such as checking yourself daily for ticks. The tiny I. scapularis ticks that spread B. microti usually must stay attached to a person for more than 36–48 hours to be able to transmit the parasite. Daily tick checks can prevent transmission of the parasite.

No vaccine is available to protect people against babesiosis.

No vaccine is available to protect people against babesiosis.

Terry Hooper-Scharf

 Naturalist and author set up the Fox Study in 1976 which later became The British Fox Study which still continues work on current foxes as well as long British fox types.  The Fox Deaths Project is focussed on the City and county of Bristol and has been yielding unexpected information on disease, etc.  Hair gathering from foxes around the UK is taking place to hopefully submit for a DNA analysis project.

In 2010 the work on foxes, jackals, wolves and coyotes in the UK led to the publication of The Red Paper: Canids.

 

Specialising in canids and felids, Terry has looked at existing, threatened or extant species particularly from Japan and Hong Kong and the work has been incorporated into The British Fox Study.  He is also credited as observing the first raccoon dog in Lippe in the 1970s.

 

In 2021 the British Canid Historical Society was set up to look at various aspects of foxes.

 

From 1977 until (officially) 2016 Terry was an exotic species consultant specialising in felids and advising UK police forces via the exotic Animals Register (EAR). During this time he contributed to various technical papers and helped University of Wales Swansea and its Exotic Cat Group which presented findings to the Eastern Cougar Foundation Conference on the evidence regarding large ‘exotic’ cats in the UK.

 

Papers and Books

1. A Method For Grading Sightings Of Non-Native Cats: Application to South and West Wales, UK: Professor Alayne Street-Perrott, Alaric B. Smith Exotic Cat Group University of Wales Swansea and Terry Hooper-Scharf Exotic Animals Register.

Proceedings of the 2^nd Eastern Cougar Conference, Morgantown, West Virginia, 2004  

2. Exotic Cats In Britain: An Historical Perspective, Professor Alayne Street-Perrott, Alaric B. Smith Exotic Cat Group University of Wales Swansea and Terry Hooper-Scharf Exotic Animals Register, Proceedings of the 2^nd Eastern Cougar Conference, Morgantown, West Virginia, 2004  

3. (Contributor) Survey effort and Sighting Probabilities for Non-Native Cats in Carmarthenshire, Professor Alayne Street-Perrott, Alaric B. Smith Exotic Cat Group University of Wales Swansea, Swansea Geographer 2004  vol. 39

4. The Biography of Perceived Encounters with Pumas and Other Exotic Cats in South and West Wales, UK; Alayne Street-Perrott, Alaric B. Smith Exotic Cat Group University of Wales Swansea and Terry Hooper-Scharf Exotic Animals Register. 2004

5. Felids: Wildcats, Ferals and Hybrids, Terry Hooper-Scharf. Vale Wildlife Group, 2000

6. UK National Wolverine Population and Evidence, Terry Hooper-Scharf, Vale Wildlife Group, November 2000

7. The Red Paper: Foxes, Fox-Domestic Dog, Hybrids, Arctic Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Coyotes: An Extensive Study of Vulpes vulpes in the United Kingdom and Releases/Escapes of Non-Native Canids; Terry Hooper-Scharf.  Black Tower Books, 2011

8. The “Girt Dog” of Ennerdale: Hyena, Thylacine or Escaped Exotic Cat: A Naturalist’s Assessment of the Evidence. Terry Hooper-Scharf. Black Tower Books, 2018

Various other unlisted papers and articles 2000-2021

Terry also applied his knowledge of the natural world to look at subjects ranging from gorillas and other primates as well as 18^th -19^th centuries mysterious predators in France, the UK and Ireland.

The Red Paper: Canids (2010)

Some Things Strange & Sinister (2011)

Some More Things Strange & Sinister  (2012)

Pursuing The Strange & Weird –A Naturalist’s Viewpoint (2014)

Strange & Mysterious Beasts  (2018)

In 2021 Terry set up the UK National Carnivore Advisory to look at all aspects of UK carnivores both large and small.

The Question of TB in Badgers

 This is going to be a sort of "on the hop" rant. A little rough and ready but it needs to be gotten off my chest.

Above: (c)2022 UK Wildlife

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Louise Shillington made a good point. There could be a very good reason why badgers are not subject to post mortems.

Imagine you PM 20 badgers killed in a cull zone. No TB. Okay, fluke and more specimens needed. So 30 badger...40 badgers...no TB. You then have to look at those figures and question the alleged badger spreading of TB.

A way around this -no post mortems on health and safety issues so how are they testing for TB? Bloods? In which case I think most of us will recall a certain alpaca that was dragged off and killed for having TB...but didn't.

I also checked and, considering badgers have been post mortemed for a few centuries there are no reports of the pathologists, biologists etc contracting TB.

Why haven't/didn't they?

Above: one example of the hundreds of thousands of badgers killed and then processed and mounted by taxidermists over the last three centuries -why is TB not rife amongst taxidermists?

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Another point made: are hunt hounds tested for TB? Because a good few do get TB and this was something talked about years ago. However, the rich protect the rich and any question of hounds with TB are fobbed off.

Above: Fox hounds (c)2022 The Field

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Taxidermists deal with badgers all of the time and the processing would surely mean a good few taxidermists have TB -it should be rife. Asking around no one has heard of a fellow taxidermist contractrng TB. Odd? There have been many thousands of British badgers killed and mounted therefore, statistically, you would expect to see some instances of TB amongst taxidermists.

There is TB in the UK but this has nothing to do with badgers but living conditions and other factors. No taxidermists -if I am wrong please correct me.

Should it not be made illegal for taxidermists to handle dead badgers? A criminal offence as it could spread the disease? Nope. Move on no questions to answer here.

A good few years back British cows were sent to Africa. These cows would have had all sorts of tests and documentation to declare them healthy. They got to Africa and...some came down with TB. So where were the badgers?

Eventually someone offered a suggestion that some African animal spread the TB and subject closed. However the subject of TB hosts and how they are dealt with in Africa is a complicated one. But the cows sent to Africa were kept in very sanitary conditions to prevent disease. The unrecognised (officially) belief for years is that the cattle had TB to start with yet came from badger free areas.

Vaccination of cattle? Well that is full of problems but the point is that we know fox hounds have TB and that can spread around but are we going to shoot all the hounds where TB is suspected? The British public would be outraged even if they were not that bothered about foxes being ripped apart, badgers being culled or when foot and mouth cause thousands of cattle to be killed and there were huge pyres of cattle burning.

Above: 2001 foot and mouth outbreak -mass burning of cattle

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We are supposed to be a nation of animal ;lovers but it seems only if its something we like. People sit back and say "nothing that we can do. Out of our hands we aren't the experts" well, forget Change.org and donating money to its "work" (of seemingly collecting contributions because its petitions seem to achieve bugger all) you have a voice. You have a vote. Pester your MP. Spam DEFRA. Then spam DEFRA again. Spam government ministers. Become the biggest pain in the ass since that question of whether the PM attended that party he attended or not.

Chris Packham and Brian May -both high profile and anti-cull

_______________________________________

Demonstrations, public events -get the big names there because the only way things are going to be changed is if YOU kick and shout about it.

Badger Cull Areas -are you in one?

 If you want to know whether you are in a badger cull zone and want to find out about cull numbers then this link will take you to last years report

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1015421/tb-min-max-numbers-2021.pdf

Badger deaths and post mortems.

I have checked with Post Mortem Services and have been told that none of the organisations associated with animal post mortems would take a badger for post mortem examination.

Before everything got re-organised and re-legislated badgers COULD be submitted however, now, Health and Safety forbids post mortem examination. The reason isthat it is consideredthat badgers are carriers of TB and therefore that raises a serious health risk to those involved.

For this reason I cannot request post mortems on badgers.

Rather like foxes, the injuries badgers die from after being involved in a car strike would be internal haemorraging, etc. There is a badger recorded as having no signs externally after being attacked by a wolf (not in UK) but during post mortem its internal organs etc were "a mess".

If you find a dead badger with some blood around its mouth/muzzle area that is probably a good sign that it was hit by a car. Badgers like foxes (again) can move away from the incident scene and die in gardens or elsewhere.

Something like clear bite marks etc might indicate badger baiting but the reports of healthy conditioned looking badgers being found dead around Bristol are very likely RTA.

Foxes and badgers both suffer heavily from motorists -often not reporting they hit an animal- and this is why the number killed each year may just be under the 60,000+ noted with fox death "guesstimations".

So if you find a dead badger report it to the locakl authority who remove carcasses free of charge. If you find dead badgers in Bristol please take a photo and send it along with location to me to keep a record.

Thank you

Bristol Badgers

 

 

Back in 1994 in Ashton Vale (it was classed by Avon Wildlife Trust as a “wildlife deprivation zone” –ie. No wildlife recorded and so of no real interest) I saw and counted many beetles and other insects. I also saw a pair of foxes walk up the road and a pair of barn owls flew low down over me so that all the individual feathers and facial features were visible. Oh, and one of the biggest hedgehogs I had ever seen.

Over the next few days I noted field mice, feral pigeons as well as dumped racing pigeons, hawks and even buzzards, shrews all sorts of moths and butterflies and so I set about building the 50 x 70 feet garden into a wildlife friendly area –budleija, sunflowers, wild plants and the front garden was designed as a cottage garden. But with all this wildlife how could it be a “wildlife deprivation area”?

I contacted Avon Wildlife Trust and asked to whom I should send my wildlife survey (after a year of compiling it) ?  I was told that they would be happy to hear of my survey after I had paid to join. I assumed there was a misunderstanding but I was told the same thing over the phone: no membership –no interest in the survey. I decided then and there to set up the Vale Wildlife Group (VWG). One thing I had not bargained on was the local hostility to wildlife!

I pointed out a woodpecker that had just flown onto a tree branch and my neighbour just shrugged “Another bloody bird is all” end of conversation. The wife of another neighbour told myself and a friend that if an hedgehog got in the way she just kicked it aside. I suddenly found that I was quite literally the focus of hate because I was trying to promote wildlife in the area. When the Yanley Quarry site was to be developed as a public park and nature reserve I was asked to be the wildlife consultant on the project –the harassment and anger aimed at me was incredible and the company turning an old tip into a public facility…I dread to think what backlash they faced.

The VWG continued and at least some locals were interested in how to build wildlife ponds, get insects identified and even have an adder removed from their back garden. Most queries for advice etc came from other areas of Bristol but I kept on monitoring local wildlife and still do.

Around 1997 I was completing two technical papers when the subject of badgers cropped up and I found myself involved in recording badger activity. I then thought that it would be easier to pass the information on to a local badger group and one was recorded as being at the RSPCA office in Gloucester Road –it still is!- but letters, phone messages –no responses. So I asked Avon Wildlife Trust about this and a more helpful lady told me she thought the badger group was now defunct. So out of stupidity I said I’d handle monitoring though by the mid 2000s the Fox Study was taking all of my time.

Recently I have been asked for badger advice again and, it appears, the only coverage for the City and County of Bristol comes from the Somerset Badger Watch! It seems almost impossible to believe that a city such as Bristol has no Fox Watch group and no badger watch group.

Consider this "Badgers In The City of Bristol" by Prof Stephen Harris, Dept of Biology, Bristol University from Biological Conservation journal Vol 28 no. 4, 1984 pp 349-375 

http://www.badgerland.co.uk/education/journals/environment/bristol_badgers.html

Ecology of Urban badgers - Distribution in Britain and habitat selection, persecution, food and damage in the city of Bristol Few towns and cities in Britain were found to contain badgers, and in most the numbers of setts were low. Urban areas most likely to contain badgers were those in which badgers were common in the surrounding rural areas; most urban badger populations were thought to be relicts that had survived urban encroachment. In a detailed survey of Bristol, 346 setts were located in an area of 129·4 km2. These setts were confined mainly to three areas; their past history, present distribution, habitat selection and levels of disturbance are discussed. The damage caused by badgers in north-west Bristol to garden crops and other aspects of their nuisance value are documented. The food of badgers in the same area of Bristol is also described; unlike rural badgers they took a diversity of food types, but specialized in feeding on fruit in the autumn.

Journal Biological Conservation - Volume 28, Issue 4 , 1984, Pages 349-375 Authors Stephen Harris from the Department of Zoology, University of Bristol Abstract Ecology of Urban badgers - Distribution in Britain and habitat selection, persecution, food and damage in the city of Bristol Few towns and cities in Britain were found to contain badgers, and in most the numbers of setts were low. Urban areas most likely to contain badgers were those in which badgers were common in the surrounding rural areas; most urban badger populations were thought to be relicts that had survived urban encroachment. In a detailed survey of Bristol, 346 setts were located in an area of 129·4 km2. These setts were confined mainly to three areas; their past history, present distribution, habitat selection and levels of disturbance are discussed. The damage caused by badgers in north-west Bristol to garden crops and other aspects of their nuisance value are documented. The food of badgers in the same area of Bristol is also described; unlike rural badgers they took a diversity of food types, but specialized in feeding on fruit in the autumn.

 Since 1984 the number of feeders and people who have become badger friendly -as they have fox friendly- has increased tremendously through education on the animal. 

We have any number of wildlife groups in various areas of Bristol and I know that it may involve going out in cold, wet weather –unless you can monitor from your home- but we need to know what is going on with the population and get denning sites protected and record deaths. That requires volunteers.

I know where there is badger activity in Bristol so it is a base from which to build up a better picture.  What I would like to do is add to this so need the following information:

1. Where badgers are in your area –this is NOT for public disclosure as too many “undesirables” monitor wildlife groups.

2. Do you know how many badgers and whether they have had young in 2021?

3. Have you noticed any illnesses or sign of possible ill health in badgers locally?

4. Do badgers and foxes appear to get on in your area?

5. I am only starting this particular one from yesterday (12^th January): please report any dead badgers you see particularly any that look like they died unusually

 

As we have trouble storing and transporting dead foxes to Langford for post mortem we cannot do this for badgers. A dead badger would need to be placed in a bin-liner and kept cold or frozen and then transported so unless a group can undertake that it is beyond anything I can do.  I will be checking with Post Mortem Services re. the situation in accepting badgers though.

 

Please contact me through Face Book messenger but do not post locations of badgers etc on groups. Thanks.

Says It All: A Diversity of Wildlife Is Good for Our Health: To Prevent Future Pandemics, We Must Restore and Protect Nature

 This post from SciTech says it all but is still only just skimming the surface.

https://scitechdaily.com/a-diversity-of-wildlife-is-good-for-our-health-to-prevent-future-pandemics-we-must-restore-and-protect-nature/?fbclid=IwAR3ZjBtwiRMdAHa4-LVYofT6yEb4PoINA1cKaKZv-OpNqGOrUptvG71x8YM

By CARY INSTITUTE OF ECOSYSTEM STUDIES MAY 8, 2021

Ecosystems with a diversity of mammals, including larger-bodies and longer lived creatures like foxes, are better for our health. Credit: Ali Rajabali / Flickr

A growing body of evidence suggests that biodiversity loss increases our exposure to both new and established zoonotic pathogens. Restoring and protecting nature is essential to preventing future pandemics. So reports a new Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) paper that synthesizes current understanding about how biodiversity affects human health and provides recommendations for future research to guide management.

Lead author Felicia Keesing is a professor at Bard College and a Visiting Scientist at Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. She explains, “There’s a persistent myth that wild areas with high levels of biodiversity are hotspots for disease. More animal diversity must equal more dangerous pathogens. But this turns out to be wrong. Biodiversity isn’t a threat to us, it’s actually protecting us from the species most likely to make us sick.”

Zoonotic diseases like COVID-19, SARS, and Ebola are caused by pathogens that are shared between humans and other vertebrate animals. But animal species differ in their ability to pass along pathogens that make us sick.

Rick Ostfeld is a disease ecologist at Cary Institute and a co-author on the paper. He explains, “Research is mounting that species that thrive in developed and degraded landscapes are often much more efficient at harboring pathogens and transmitting them to people. In less-disturbed landscapes with more animal diversity, these risky reservoirs are less abundant and biodiversity has a protective effect.”

Free-ranging longhorn cattle at Knepp Wildland, a 3,500-acre lowland rewilding project in England. Credit: Matt Ellery – Knepp Estate – Flickr

Rodents, bats, primates, cloven-hooved mammals like sheep and deer, and carnivores have been flagged as the mammal taxa most likely to transmit pathogens to humans. Keesing and Ostfeld note, “The next emerging pathogen is far more likely to come from a rat than a rhino.”

This is because animals with fast life histories tend to be more efficient at transmitting pathogens. Keesing explains, “Animals that live fast, die young, and have early sexual maturity with lots of offspring tend to invest less in their adaptive immune responses. They are often better at transmitting diseases, compared to longer-lived animals with stronger adaptive immunity.”

When biodiversity is lost from ecological communities, long-lived, larger-bodied species tend to disappear first, while smaller-bodied species with fast life histories tend to proliferate. Research has found that mammal hosts of zoonotic viruses are less likely to be species of conservation concern (i.e. they are more common), and that for both mammals and birds, human development tends to increase the abundance of zoonotic host species, bringing people and risky animals closer together.

When land is developed and fragmented, species that are more efficient at spreading zoonotic diseases tend to proliferate. Credit: Cary Institute Photo Archive

“When we erode biodiversity, we favor species that are more likely to be zoonotic hosts, increasing our risk of spillover events,” Ostfeld notes. Adding that, “Managing this risk will require a better understanding of how things like habitat conversion, climate change, and overharvesting affect zoonotic hosts, and how restoring biodiversity to degraded areas might reduce their abundance.”

To predict and prevent spillover, Keesing and Ostfeld highlight the need to focus on host attributes associated with disease transmission rather than continuing to debate the prime importance of one taxon or another. Ostfeld explains, “We should stop assuming that there is a single animal source for each emerging pathogen. The pathogens that jump from animals to people tend to be found in many animal species, not just one. They’re jumpers, after all, and they typically move between species readily.”

Disentangling the characteristics of effective zoonotic hosts – such as their immune strategies, resilience to disturbance, and habitat preferences – is key to protecting public health. Forecasting the locations where these species thrive, and where pathogen transmission and emergence are likely, can guide targeted interventions.

Keesing notes, “Restoration of biodiversity is an important frontier in the management of zoonotic disease risk. Those pathogens that do spill over to infect humans–zoonotic pathogens–often proliferate as a result of human impacts.” Concluding, “As we rebuild our communities after COVID-19, we need to have firmly in mind that one of our best strategies to prevent future pandemics is to protect, preserve, and restore biodiversity.”

Reference: “Impacts of biodiversity and biodiversity loss on zoonotic diseases” by Felicia Keesing and Richard S. Ostfeld, 5 April 2021, Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2023540118

This research was supported by a National Science Foundation Grant OPUS 1948419 to Keesing.

Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies is an independent nonprofit center for environmental research. Since 1983, our scientists have been investigating the complex interactions that govern the natural world and the impacts of climate change on these systems. Our findings lead to more effective management and policy actions and increased environmental literacy. Staff are global experts in the ecology of: cities, disease, forests, and freshwater.